How To Research Ancestors In The United States

Searching for an ancestor who was born in the United States or simply lived there requires a basic understanding of time periods, political structure, geography, and record sets.

The time period and political structure are important factors in your search. Often, researchers are looking for records in a specific state or county when that region did not yet exist.
Assumptions made about geography can also find the researcher working in the wrong area. For example, street names and city street grids may have changed over time.
Locating record sets can be problematic if searching in the wrong county or even for a date prior to when the records were created.

Research your ancestors on MyHeritage

Time period

Before starting research, determine the important dates in an ancestor's life including, birth, death and marriage. This information will help determine specifics in terms of location as well as availability of records. If a specific date cannot be determined, estimate the time period for the ancestor's life.

The period prior to 1776 when the United States was founded, would be considered the Colonial Period when the area was governed by countries such as Britain, France, Netherlands, and Spain. The Thirteen Original Colonies under British rule would become states in 1789. In addition, other territories such as the Louisiana Purchase were annexed out of which new states were created over time.

Also factor in the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865. Where the ancestor was located - either in the Union (North) or the Confederacy (South) will impact the ability to locate records.

As for records, availability depends on the time period and location. Some states kept better records than others. Vital record registration for births, marriages, and deaths were not required by some states until the early 20th century.

Political structure

As mentioned above, an ancestor could be living in a territory - a region that had not met the requirements for statement - rather than a state. On the local level, each state is divided into counties. A county will have a "county seat" - a city or town that handles all the administrative services and records for the county. A county courthouse will usually be the repository for many records including land records, viral records, wills and probate records, and more.

Understand that counties changed over time. A county could split into smaller counties or even merge with other counties. The Atlas of Historical County Boundaries - The Newberry Library can help determine the exact county for a specific date.

Each state will have its own system of local governments including cities, townships, towns, villages and even "unincorporated areas." In New York, for example, each county is divided into towns which are more like townships. Then each town is comprised of cities, villages, and hamlets.

For each ancestor, review the political structure of where the ancestor lived so that the correct administrative body responsible for records can be identified.

Geography

Besides the political boundaries created by states, counties, etc., review the geography of a location where the ancestor lived in the United States. Use a historical map denoting landmarks as well as cities and towns. Remember that present day locations may have had different names. And a letter or diary containing directions from one point to another could rely on landmarks rather than route names.

Also review a topographical map of the area that includes mountains, rivers, outcroppings, elevations, and more. Doing so could explain why an ancestor worshipped at a church farther away than another once, since the route was through a mountain pass and meant a shorter trip.

Census records

Enumeration of people living in the United States has taken many forms including a federally mandated census every ten years to territorial censuses used to determine qualification for statehood.

Federal census records: Records documenting the decennial Federal census in the United States (as mandated by the US Constitution) are often the starting point for most researchers. Again, preliminary research of an ancestor's location as well as time period will determine which census records to use. Some considerations when using federal census records:
- The US Constitution only mandates a "headcount" of "residents" in order to apportion legislative seats evenly among the states. This means names, addresses, country of origin and other data were added as the US census expanded from its original intention starting in 1790.
- From 1790 to 1840, the population schedules list only the name of the head of household, and a tabulation of other males and females in the household grouped by age and other statuses.
- Starting in 1850, names of all household members were collected and entered on population schedules.
- There is a 72 year "privacy hold" on US census data, meaning the population schedules used by genealogists are not made public until 72 years after the Census Day. The latest data release was for the 1950 US Census, released on April 1, 2012 (since the "census day" was April 1, 1950).
- The 1890 US Census is considered "missing" due to a major fire and resulting water damage to the records in 1921.

Special federal schedules: As the US census expanded, the government found it advantageous to collect other data including information related to agriculture, industry and more. In addition, schedules of enslaved persons, residents who died in the previous year, and enumeration of war veterans were produced between 1830 and 1900. These include:
- In 1850 and 1860, enslaved persons were enumerated on special "slave schedules" and listed within each household. Only first names were listed for enslaved persons.
- Agricultural and business schedules collected a variety of information including number of livestock, amount of grain and other items produced, etc. Genealogists can use this information to better understand ancestors who owned farms and businesses.
- Mortality schedules were taken from 1850 to 1895 and listed person who had died the previous year (based on the census day). Important information includes death date and cause of death.
- A special "veteran's schedule" was taken in 1890 and the focus was on those who had fought in the Mexican American War (1846-1848) and the Civil War (1861-1965). Information includes names of veterans as well as widows, date of enlistment, date of discharge and more.

State and territorial censuses: Many states and territories saw the value in enumerating residents in order to collect information used to apportion legislative seats as well as to provide better governmental services. Here are some facts to consider when using these records:
- Most US territories enumerated resident via census, usually to determine if all or part of the territory met the minimum population requirement to be admitted as a state.
- When part of a territory became a state, the remaining portion of the territory would often be renamed. Example: the Northwest Territory became the Indiana territory which became the Michigan Territory which became the Illinois Territory as new states were formed.
- Not all states held a census of residents. The states that did conduct a census would do so on "the fives" meaning the year in between the US federal census held on years ending in zero. Example: New York state censuses were conducted in 1825, 1835, 1845, 1855, 1865, 1875, 1892, 1905, 1915, and 1925.
- The type of information collected by a state or territorial census was often different than what was collected on a US federal census.

Also see Census records in the MyHeritage Wiki.

Church & religious records

For many ancestors in the United States, events such as birth, marriage, and death were recorded not by local or state governments, but by houses of worship. Vital records registration in the US wasn't required by all states until 1920. Church and synagogue records date from the founding of the United States and even during the Colonial Period.

Baptism/christening records: Depending upon the church denomination and ethnicity of the worshippers, baptism into the church took place anywhere from several days after birth to six months after the birth. For rural locations, several congregants were often baptized on the same date due to the use of "circuit ministers" who visited a church every six to eight weeks on a rotating basis.
Marriage records: Marriage records take many forms from banns (a notice of intent to marry posted publicly several weeks prior to the marriage), to marriage licenses, to marriage certificates, and even marriage returns (a license signed by the person conducting the marriage ceremony and "returned" back to the local government for recording).
Burial records: Again depending on the denomination, burials were recorded often in a register or ledger. For Catholic churches, since burial was not a sacrament (like baptism and marriage), burial records can be difficult to find.
Membership lists: Many churches maintained lists of congregation members. In addition, some early churches required a "pew rental fee" for a person or family to secure a seat during services.

Also see Church records or Synagogue records in the MyHeritage Wiki.

Court records

Courts in the United States are responsible for conducting a variety of judicial proceedings. Most of these proceedings created documents containing names, ages, addresses, marital status, and more. Proceedings include:

Adoptions
Criminal cases
Divorce
Guardianships
Institutionalization
Land
Lawsuits
Name changes
Naturalizations
Probate

Every proceeding created documents.

Case files: A case file documented all actions and proceedings in a case brought before the court, from start to finish.
Inventories: Some proceedings such as those related to death, inheritance, and land, required an inventory be taken of items related to the case.
Jury and witness lists: For court cases a list of jurors as well as witnesses were recorded listing names, addresses, and occupations.
Wills and testaments: Part of probate proceedings, documents related to death and inheritance included inventories, but also stated relationships between the deceased ancestor and those named in a will.

Also see Court records in the MyHeritage Wiki.

Directories, gazetteers, & guides

Prior to the invention of the telephone and the telephone book, most cities and even small towns had a directory listing information on its inhabitants. City and business directories are filled with clues to help break down brick walls and better understand ancestors.

City directories: A city directory is often much more than an alphabetical list of residents and their addresses. Here are the basic types of information often found in directories related to an ancestor:
- Name
- Spouse / Marital Status
- Occupation
- Address
- Employer

Keep in mind that a directory for a large city will offer more information than a small town directory. However, some small town directories might list residents who died in the previous year and even the ailment suffered or the cause of death.

Business directories: For the most part, business directories were combined with city directories with the information located at the rear of the directory. Again, business directories listed more than just the name of the business and location. Information often includes the business owner, members of the board of directors, description of products and services, number of employees, as well as annual revenues.

Telephone directories: Once owning a telephone became more affordable - after World War II - city and business directories were replaced by telephone directories. These directories became more popular since they were provided free of charge by telephone companies. The directories provided basic details including name, address, and telephone number along with advertisements from local businesses.

Also see City and business directories in the MyHeritage Wiki.

Educational records

US residents benefitted from free, compulsory education. However, many ancestors who went to school prior to World War II may only have completed the 8th grade in order to work and earn money for the family. University education became more popular starting in the 1950s with an improved economy and a growing middle class.

School registers: Some local governments have preserved ledgers and registers of students enrolled in school each year. A list of students is also called a "school census" which would be conducted on a local or state level.
Yearbooks: A yearbook is a published digest of students, teachers, administrators and their various activities during a given year. Many yearbooks prior to World War II were published only for private or religious schools due to the production costs. Starting in the 1950s, many public schools as well as universities started to publish yearbooks.
Alumni directories and reunions: Once a student left school, they would often become part of an alumni organization and also attend "school reunions." Various publications were created for alumni containing photographs, stories, and other information.

Fraternal and sororal organization records

Fraternal organizations such as the Masons, Elks, International Order of Odd Fellows, and mutual insurance organizations such as the Woodmen of the World, were very popular starting with the founding of the United States. These organizations were a way of "belonging" with others based on occupation, native land and language, and beliefs. In addition, many sororal organizations for women existed including Eastern Order, Rebekkah Lodge, and Hadassah.

Records generated include membership lists, yearbooks and quarterlies, minutes of proceedings, names of office holders, and advertisements of meetings.

Immigration & citizenship records

The United States is often called a "nation of immigrants" and since its founding, the arrival of those emigrating to America has been recorded in various documents.

Passenger lists: A common misconception is that even early immigrant passengers had their arrival recorded and that most arrived in New York City. Not true. Other ports of arrival included Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, New Orleans, and San Francisco depending upon the arrival date. For New York, not all passengers arrived at Ellis Island since it wasn't open for use as a processing center until January 1, 1892. For the period 1852-1891, passengers arrived at the Castle Garden processing center. Many passengers arriving in the US were already citizens, but just the same, their arrival information was recorded.
Naturalization records: It can be difficult to locate citizenship and naturalization records since it was the US federal court system that responsible for citizenship proceedings. An immigrant would often need to file a Declaration of Intent which sometimes also swearing they they would not longer be loyal to the ruler of their home country. Once naturalization was approved, a Certificate of Citizenship would be generated and filed with the court. The best way to determine which federal court district to search, is to locate the point of arrival for the immigrant. In most cases, unless the person traveled in-land to other locations, the US District Court will be close to the arrival port.
Border crossing records: Not all travelers arrived via boat at one of the major US ports. There were several border crossings that recorded arrivals including Canada (starting in 1895) and Mexico (starting in 1903).
Passport applications: US passports were only available to citizens of the United States and records are available from 1795 to 1925. Passports are filled with clues as to an immigrant citizens home country. 20th century passports also included a photograph of the person and sometimes a travel itinerary.

Also see Castle Garden immigration records, Ellis Island immigration records, Naturalization records, and US passport records in the MyHeritage Wiki.

Land records

When land was sold or transferred to another person, various records were generated to document the transactions. These documents can be located at local and state governments and, depending upon the transaction type, the federal government.

Deeds: Proof of land ownership in the form of a legal document.
Dower release: A widow's share of the husband's estate.
Land grants and patents: State and federal government transfer of land. The Homestead Act of 1862 was used to create patents of plots of land when the applicant satisfied land improvement requirements.
Lien: A legal claim to property, often used as collateral for a loan. Can also be part of a mortgage.
Mortgages: A loan used to purchase or maintain property.
Quitclaim deed: Document that transfers land from one person to another without a traditional sales process.
Tax lists: Lists of property tax payors and unpaid taxes.
Titles: Represents the rights and the responsibilities of the person owning the property.

Also see Land records in the MyHeritage Wiki.

Military records

Throughout an ancestor's life it is likely that they served in the military. Military records can provide valuable insights into the lives of ancestors and can also provide vital record information and even data on those who didn’t serve but were related to the ancestor.

Service records: Contain information about an ancestor’s involvement with the military. These include compiled service records, medical records, and more.
Draft records: Military conscription records consisting mainly of “draft card registration” forms. Information includes name, age, residence, occupation, marital status, physical description and more.
Enlistment records: Offer much of the same information found in draft records. Includes information on military unit including company or regiment. Also includes Muster Rolls listing date and location of enlistment and muster.
Discharge records: Difficult to locate, discharge records take different forms depending upon the time period and location. For instance, the discharge certificates for US military service from 1865 to 1944 were kept by family members. Also check on the state level for discharge records.
Pension records: Contain an amazing amount of data including basic vital record data, service information, information on spouse and children, disability information, and affidavits/statements of friends, families and neighbors.
Retirement home records: Check for soldier home registers online, at the National Archives (US) as well as state archives. These registers often cover three areas: military service, domestic information (birthplace, residence, etc.), as well as data on the veteran’s pension, date of admission, death date, and burial.
Bounty land warrants: Between 1755 and 1855, the US federal government provided land as a “bounty” for military service. In addition, some states established bounty land programs, mainly for US Revolutionary War service.
Casualty records: Contain information on a military ancestor who died in combat. Can also refer to those missing in action, captured, and injured.
Cemetery records: Online databases contain grave location information, images of headstones as well as basic vital record data such as birth date, birth location, etc.
Veterans and lineage society records: For many US military conflicts, those who served belonged to fraternal groups such as the Grand Army of the Republic. These groups produced yearbooks or commemorative books; many available in digital form. Check lineage groups such as DAR for records as well.

Also see How to research military records in the MyHeritage Wiki.

Newspapers

In the absence of official governmental documents such as vital records, newspapers can help establish and prove basic birth, marriage and death information about an ancestor. In addition, a newspaper listing, such as an obituary, can be a starting point for further research and assist in generating research “to-do” list ideas.

Advertisements: Not only listing sale items, but also provide store names and locations.
Death notices: Concise listing of the name of the decedent, the date and information on the funeral or burial.
Estate sales: Appear under Legal Notices and can also appear in their own section. Listings include items for sale, name of decedent and executor/executrix as well as date, time and location of sale.
Events listings: Include meetings for fraternal organizations, dates and times for religious services, town and governmental meetings and more.
Hospital listings: Commonplace with the names of those who were admitted and discharged.
Hotel arrivals: Commonly used in smaller towns and listed those expected to check in at specific hotels and boarding houses.
Letters waiting at the post office: Section was popular prior to the use of telephones and rural mail service.

Legal notices: Encompass more than just information on pending court cases. Local newspapers often posted lists of those called to jury duty or those appointed to a grand jury. In addition, any notice of repossession would appear under legal notices.

Local news: The most valuable section for most genealogists since these articles list names, dates, events and even illnesses. While today they seem more like “gossip columns,” this was the news of interest to local citizens.
Marital discord ads: Usually placed by a husband whose wife had left as part of a separation.

Memorials: Printed on a death anniversary date.
Obituaries: Usually more substantial than death notices and are often composed of narrative text rich with information. Information could include a cause of death, a woman’s maiden name, religion, occupation, information on migration, names of children and locations, and more. However, it is usually not clear who composed the obituary or who informed the newspaper of the death.

Personals: A “miscellaneous” category for various types of announcements.
School news: Sections included names of students in each grade as well as honor roll students and awards.
Shipping News: List the expected date and arrival time for various ships including passenger ships.

Society Columns: Took the place of the Local News section in larger cities; listings usually only included well-known personages and those with “means.”

Also see Newspaper records in the MyHeritage Wiki

Occupational records

Even the lowliest of occupations generated documents filled with important information and clues for an ancestor:

Union records: The rise of worker unions starting in the 1880s reached its peak during World War II. Unions maintained lists of dues paying members as well as historical information on protests, strikes, and work stoppages.
Employment records: While records maintained by an employer can be difficult to obtain, local, state, and federal governments often made such records available for public research.
Professional licenses: Many states considered licensure for a professional a matter of public record. Search for state government records - usually through the Secretary of State office - but also books for professional associations such as medical or dental associations. The association publications often contained extensive biographies and obituaries of members as well as announcements related to marriages and the birth of children.

Special collections and miscellaneous

Some records are classified as "everything else" and can help locate ancestors in the United States. The records listed below are the most useful to genealogists:

Historical photographs: Search for photographs based not so much on the ancestor name, but on where they lived, worked, worshipped, etc.
Personal letters and diaries: Diaries and letters can be a treasure chest of information. Also search for an ancestor's name in the letters and diaries of others including family members and neighbors.
Oral histories: From the 1930s through to the present day, oral history projects have memorialized the lives of ancestors. Formats include audio recordings as well as written transcriptions of those recordings. Search for an ancestor's name as well as locations where they lived.
Genealogical compilations and family histories: Search for the work of other genealogists who may have researched a family surname or conducted a "one place study." These documents may contain new information but also conflicting information; it is important to make sure all information presented by other researchers can be verified via source citations. In addition, the work of others might offer "clues" for further research of an ancestor.

Vital records

Another common misconception among those new to genealogy, is that every major life event was recorded and registered - either with a church or a local or state government. The fact is that many states didn't require registration until as late as the 1920s. In addition, a state may have passed legislature requiring registration, but actual compliance was another matter. Often decades transpired between enactment and compliance.

Birth certificates: A church or even a hospital issued a birth certificate as well as the local or state government. Each type contains different information. Look for the name of the ancestor, ancestor's parents, birth location, etc. A few states recorded stillbirths while others only recorded a "live birth."
Marriage records: Marriage records take many forms from banns (a notice of intent to marry posted publicly several weeks prior to the marriage), to marriage licenses, to marriage certificates, and even marriage returns (a license signed by the person conducting the marriage ceremony and "returned" back to the local government for recording).
Death certificates: Only local and state governments issued a certificate of death for an ancestor. These records included basic information about the decedent and sometimes cause of death as well as the name of the informant and their relationship to the decedent. Also look for burial information at the bottom of some death certificates as well as information on the attending physician and the mortician.
Divorce decrees: Any records of divorce proceedings are difficult not just to locate, but to also access for research purposes. Many divorce records were "sealed" by the court since prior to "no fault divorce" in 1969, divorce records contained testimony as to the cause of divorce - adultery, cruelty or desertion. Like adoption records, a court hearing and order is required to unseal such documents, often at a huge monetary cost, and rarely successful.

Explore more about researching ancestors in the US

US Landmarks records collections at MyHeritage
USA collection of maps at MyHeritage
Newspaper records collection at MyHeritage
Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, 1791-1963 on MyHeritage
The U.S. Census: Tracing Your Family in Census Records on the MyHeritage Knowledge Base.
Atlas of Historical County Boundaries - The Newberry Library
General Land Office Records - Bureau of Land Management