Nucleotides are a class of compounds that has a significant role in the operation of living things.[1] All known life forms on Earth depend on nucleotides to survive and exist,[2] and thus they are considered the building blocks of life. Nucleotides are made up of three essential elements: a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.[3] The four different forms of nitrogenous bases that can be used are:
- Adenine (A)
- Thymine (T)
- Cytosine (C)
- or Guanine (G).
Purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine) are the two categories into which these bases fall.[4] In nucleotides, the sugar molecule is often a five-carbon sugar known as deoxyribose in DNA or ribose in RNA. A phosphorus atom is joined to four oxygen atoms to form the phosphate group.[5] These three elements work together to create a wide variety of nucleotides with various functions.
Role of nucleotides
The involvement of nucleotides in the formation of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) is their most well-known function.[6] DNA is the genetic substance that contains the instructions needed by all living things to develop, function, and reproduce.[7] On the other hand, RNA plays a role in a number of biological functions, such as protein production. The genetic code, which consists of the instructions for creating and maintaining an organism, is formed by how nucleotides are arranged along the DNA molecule.[8] Proteins are the workhorses of biological activity, and the sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by the sequence of nucleotides.[9] They are involved in practically all facets of an organism's existence, from facilitating chemical interactions to offering support and structure.
Nucleotides play other important roles in the cell besides storing genetic information. In the form of molecules like ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which serves as the currency of the cell's energy, they are engaged in the transfer and storage of energy.[10] Numerous cellular processes are propelled by ATP, which is created during cellular respiration.[11] Additionally, nucleotides take part in cellular communication and signaling pathways. Nucleotides also play a role in the creation of coenzymes like NAD+ (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide), which are necessary for a variety of cellular metabolic processes.[12]
Nucleotides and genealogy
In the field of genealogy, DNA testing is used to study biological relationships between individuals and trace ancestry. This process involves examining the single nucleotide polymorphisms on chromosomes and comparing them with others. The different nucleotides of our DNA sequences among all human beings form genes, which are the basis of heredity. Therefore, the nucleotide sequence is the most fundamental level of knowledge of a gene or genome, providing vital information for genealogical research.
Genetic genealogy combines traditional genealogical methods with DNA testing to create family history profiles. It uses three types of DNA tests: autosomal, mitochondrial, and Y-DNA. Autosomal DNA provides information on both matrilineal and patrilineal descent, while mitochondrial DNA gives information on matrilineal descent, and Y-DNA on patrilineal descent. These tests help identify archeological cultures and migration paths of a person's ancestors along strict maternal or paternal lines, further highlighting the importance of nucleotides in genealogy.
Nucleotides in medicine
The enormous potential of nucleotides in numerous sectors is still being investigated by scientists. They are working hard to produce nucleotide-based medicines, such as antiviral and anticancer treatments.[13] Nucleotide analogs, which resemble natural nucleotides structurally, can obstruct viral replication or slow the growth of tumors,[14] and several nucleotide derivatives have been used in recent years as antivirals to combat HIV and hepatitis.[15]
Explore more on nucleotides
- The MyHeritage DNA test
- DNA Basics, Chapter 2: The Structure of DNA from the MyHeritage Blog
- DNA Basics, Chapter 4: A Glossary of Terms from the MyHeritage Blog
- DNA Basics, Chapter 3: DNA Expression from the MyHeritage Blog
- Genealogy Glossary: DNA Terms Explained, article by Daniella Levy on the MyHeritage Knowledge Base
References
- ↑ Hatse, S., De Clercq, E., & Balzarini, J. (1999). Role of antimetabolites of purine and pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism in tumor cell differentiation. Biochemical pharmacology, 58(4), 539-555.
- ↑ Henderson, J. F., & LePage, G. A. (1958). Naturally occurring acid-soluble nucleotides. Chemical Reviews, 58(4), 645-688.
- ↑ Friedman, J. I., & Stivers, J. T. (2010). Detection of damaged DNA bases by DNA glycosylase enzymes. Biochemistry, 49(24), 4957-4967.
- ↑ Cornish-Bowden, A. (1985). Nomenclature for incompletely specified bases in nucleic acid sequences: recommendations 1984. Nucleic acids research, 13(9), 3021.
- ↑ Bowater, R. P. (2001). Nucleotides: Structure and properties. e LS.
- ↑ Breaker, R. R., & Joyce, G. F. (1994). A DNA enzyme that cleaves RNA. Chemistry & biology, 1(4), 223-229
- ↑ Bello, H., & Gbolagade, K. (2017). A Survey of Human Deoxyribonucleic Acid. British Journal of Applied Science & Technology, 21(5), 1-10.
- ↑ Cristea, P. D. (2002). Conversion of nucleotides sequences into genomic signals. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine, 6(2), 279-303.
- ↑ Meng, D. M., Zhao, J. F., Ling, X., Dai, H. X., Guo, Y. J., Gao, X. F., ... & Fan, Z. C. (2017). Recombinant expression, purification and antimicrobial activity of a novel antimicrobial peptide PaDef in Pichia pastoris. Protein Expression and Purification, 130, 90-99.
- ↑ Haferkamp, I., Fernie, A. R., & Neuhaus, H. E. (2011). Adenine nucleotide transport in plants: much more than a mitochondrial issue. Trends in plant science, 16(9), 507-515.
- ↑ Manoj, K. M. (2018). Debunking chemiosmosis and proposing murburn concept as the operative principle for cellular respiration. Biomedical Reviews, 28, 31-48.
- ↑ Hess, J. R., & Greenberg, N. A. (2012). The role of nucleotides in the immune and gastrointestinal systems: potential clinical applications. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 27(2), 281-294.
- ↑ Rayburn, E. R., & Zhang, R. (2008). Antisense, RNAi, and gene silencing strategies for therapy: mission possible or impossible? Drug discovery today, 13(11-12), 513-521.
- ↑ Wu, G., Liu, B., Zhang, Y., Li, J., Arzumanyan, A., Clayton, M. M., ... & Feitelson, M. A. (2013). Preclinical characterization of GLS4, an inhibitor of hepatitis B virus core particle assembly. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, 57(11), 5344-5354.
- ↑ Ramesh, Deepthi; Vijayakumar, Balaji Gowrivel; Kannan, Tharanikkarasu (12 February 2021). Advances in Nucleoside and Nucleotide Analogues in Tackling Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Hepatitis Virus Infections. ChemMedChem. 16 (9): 1403–1419.